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A COMPARATIVE DICTIONARY OF NORTH CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES: PREFACE Part I: foreword, abbreviations, bibliography EDITOR'S FOREWORD

    This dictionary has a long history. The idea of composing it was already ripe in 1979, and the basic cardfiles were composed in 1980-1983, during long winter months of our collaboration with S. L. Nikolayev in the village of Dubrovki, some 300 miles away from Moscow. Nikolayev, being unable to get a job in Moscow, was teaching in the village school at that time, and I was visiting him from time to time, spending several weeks far from civilization.
    The first version was handwritten and was ready around 1982. The second version was typed on a Cyrillic typewriter by S. Nikolayev in Dubrovki in 1983, a year before he came back to Moscow from his Dubrovki "exile". After that - until 1988 - the dictionary continued its life as original cardfiles plus handwritten manuscript plus typewritten manuscript. There was absolutely no prospect of publishing the dictionary, because some chief figures in Soviet caucasology were violently against our North Caucasian reconstruction, and there was no way of avoiding them while publishing the book. Consequently, I turned basically to Chinese and Altaic studies, and S.Nikolayev to Slavic. But I managed, together with and due to the reputation of Prof. I. M. Diakonoff, to publish a book in Mµnchen, called "Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian Language". This was in 1986, and the book did not go unnoticed by reviewers.
    In 1987 things started happening. George Soros succeeded in opening a division of his foundation in Moscow. This was the first non-government institution we had ever seen. Then an American armenologist, Prof. John Greppin, came to Moscow from Cleveland, Ohio, looked at our data and wrote a recommendation letter to the Soros Foundation. I received a grant - just enough for buying a personal computer to make a camera-ready copy of the dictionary. In November 1988 a group of scholars, including S. Nikolayev and me, flew off to the USA to participate in the first Ann Arbor conference on historical linguistics (this was the first time most of us were abroad), where I bought the PC. I am glad to use this occasion to express my gratitude to Prof. Greppin and to the Soros Foundation for their assistance.
    Since 1988 I was busy developing the database format for the dictionary (I will not go into computer details here, but I am rather proud that the computer program that I had designed primarily for the North Caucasian etymological dictionary is now widely used for all kinds of lexicographic purposes), writing the introduction with phonetic comparative tables, translating everything into English and typing it into the computer. Meanwhile the reconstruction and transcription system was slightly changed, some etymologies modified, some abandoned and some added. All changes were discussed with S. L. Nikolayev and approved by him, but all the work of the past five years was done exclusively by me, and I bear all responsibility for the final text of the dictionary. Now, in December 1993, the work seems to be completed. There is still very much to be done, both in comparative phonology and in etymology of North Caucasian, and I am quite sure that "Addenda et corrigenda" will follow, but I certainly feel that the publication of what we know so far is necessary.
    The dictionary in its present state embraces roots common to East Caucasian and West Caucasian languages, as well as the roots shared by at least two subgroups of East Caucasian languages. I did not include roots attested within a single branch of East Caucasian (e.g., in Lezghian languages) or West Caucasian roots having no obvious parallel in East Caucasian. Sometimes, however, reference to such roots can be found in the body of the dictionary; I hope to publish all available roots of this kind later, in a separate edition.
    The dictionary contains some information concerning grammatical reconstruction, but it is not a comparative grammar, so most inflectional morphemes were not included. However, pronouns and numerals are abundantly represented.
    It is important to say that external data - all evidence in favour of the so called Sino-Caucasian or Dene-Caucasian hypothesis - is left out of the book. All reconstructions were made purely on the basis of the internal Caucasian evidence. It is clear that the final proof of the Sino-Caucasian hypothesis depends substantially on the North Caucasian evidence presented in this dictionary, but it should be a subject of a special study.
    I would like to thank numerous friends and colleagues without whom this work would never have been done: Vyach. Vs. Ivanov, I. M. Diakonoff, A. B. Dolgopolski, V. A. Dybo, V. V. Shevoroshkin, A. Y. Militarev, I. Catford, S. V. Kodzasov, M. Ruhlen, V. Chirikba, V. Ardzinba. My special thanks are due to Ramazan Radzhibov - a speaker of Tsezi and the provider of most Khvarshi data in the dictionary; to M. Y. Alekseyev and Y. G. Testelets who took pains to read the whole manuscript and helped with many important corrections and suggestions; to O. A. Mudrak who helped designing fonts for the laser printer; to my son, George Starostin, who translated the lengthy "Introduction" into English; to American friends, Douglas Smith and Laura Little, who had read through the manuscript and corrected style; and finally to Prof. Greppin and the Soros Foundation, without whose assistance the work would have never been published.

S. A. Starostin

PREFACE

The present work is not the first comparative dictionary of North Caucasian languages (for East Caucasian cf. Leksika 1971, Khaidakov 1973; for part of West Caucasian see Kuipers 1975), but certainly the first etymological dictionary with systematic reconstructions. See the "Introduction" below for the outline of North Caucasian classification and comparative phonology.

The dictionary is an outprint from a computer database on North Caucasian languages, which actually is a system of interrelated database files on every subgroup of North Caucasian languages. This determines the structure of an average etymological entry which is the following:

    1) Proto-North-Caucasian reconstruction. If there are no Western Caucasian reflexes, we give only the Proto-East-Caucasian reconstruction (it should be noted, that, in general, Proto-East-Caucasian and Proto-North-Caucasian differ only in a few minor details, see below);
    2) The reconstructed meaning (the semantic reconstruction is of course quite tentative; we do not pretend that meanings can be exactly reconstructed in most cases).
    3) Reflexes in daughter protolanguages, as well as in isolated Lak and Khinalug languages. If a root is attested only in one language of some subgroup (e.g., in Tindi, but in none of the other Andian languages), we still give a tentative reconstruction for that subgroup. It must be stressed that, for convenience, we grouped Avar together with Andian languages, although we do not present any Avaro-Andian reconstruction (only Proto-Andian). It should be kept in mind that the Avar forms do not go back directly to the Proto-Andian reconstructions. Therefore the tentative "Proto-Andian" forms, given in cases when the Avar form alone is attested, are doubly tentative (because no Andian forms are attested at all). Still we list them for uniformity's sake.
    4) Within each subgroup we list reflexes in basic languages and dialects (see below). The reflexes are preceded by a list of enumerated meanings, and the respective numbers are repeated after particular reflexes (to avoid repetition).
    The list of reflexes is followed by comments that include all additional information: semantic nuances, forms from other dialects, references and discussion. It is important to note that some existing intermediate reconstructions are also systematically given within the commentary: this concerns Proto-Gunzib-Bezhta, Proto-Tsezi-Khvarshi, Proto-Abkhaz-Tapant and Proto-Adyghe-Kabardian.
    5) Every etymological entry is concluded by a general comment (with the same kind of information, but concerning the entry as a whole).

The corpus of the dictionary is followed by indices for every language - which, we are happy to say, were made with the help of a computer.

For Caucasian languages it is highly important to use the most reliable sources available, because in many early sources (such as all records of Dirr), as well as in highly inaccurate and may be misleading. Throughout the dictionary we apply the following method of citation: for every language a single dialect and a single source is chosen as a standard. If relevant data from other dialects and/or sources are available, we give the reference explicitly (as an abbreviation). Below we list NC languages with a brief description of sources. Basic dialects are given in bold type.

1. Abkhaz

Abzhui dialect: The basic source, against which everything was tested, is now Shakryl-Kondzharia 1986-1987. Earlier the basic source was Bgazhba 1964a; Dzhanashia 1954 was also frequently used, less often - Uslar 1887.

Bzyb dialect: The basic source is Bgazhba 1964b; Marr 1926 was also used (although the quality of records is poorer here). In 1980 one of the authors (S. A. Starostin) made his own recordings of the Bzyb dialect. Unfortunately, it was a Bzyb sub-dialect that lost hissing-hushing sibilants (the special archaic feature of Bzyb), which is why we seldom use these field records in the present dictionary.
2. Abaza

Tapant dialect. The basic source is Tugov 1967. Also used was Gonov 1956, as well as field recordings made by one of the authors (S. A. Starostin) in 1981. The data of the Ashkhar dialect are not described systematically and were utilized only occasionally.
3. Ubykh.

The basic source is Vogt 1963.
4. Adyghe.

Temirgoi dialect (literary Adyghe). The basic source is Vodozhdokov 1960. Less frequently we also used Kerasheva-Khatanov 1960.

A regular source for Bzhedug data is Kuipers 1975. Kuipers' dictionary also contains some Shapsug data, although there does not exist a systematic recording of Shapsug. The Abadzekh dialect (rather close to Temirgoi) is also not described systematically.
5. Kabardian (Circassian)

Dialect of the Great Kabarda (literary Kabardian): the basic source was Kardanov 1957 (as well as Bichoyev-Kardanov 1955). A source which was also utilised is Nogma 1956 (actually recorded in 1844 by A.M. Sch£gren, after Sh. Nogma's death).
Other Kabardian dialects (Mozdok, Beslene, Kuban) are not described systematically, but according to existing records they are quite close to literary Kabardian.
6. Batsbi

The basic source, against which all data were tested, is Kadagidze 1984. Other important sources are: Matsiyev 1932, Desheriyev 1953, Imnayshvili 1977, Schiefner 1856.
7. Chechen

Level-land dialect (literary Chechen): the basic source is Matsiyev 1961. Also useful in some cases is Karasayev-Matsiyev 1978; very valuable information is contained in Uslar 1888.
Data on all other Chechen dialects (Akka, Cheberlo, Melkhi, Itumkala, Galanchozh, Kista, Sharo, Khildikharo) were taken from Imnayshvili 1977.
8. Ingush

The primary source for Ingush is Dzhamalkhanov-Matsiyev-Ozdoyev 1962. Two other valuable sources are Matsiyev-Ozdoyev 1966 and Ozdoyev 1980.

9. Andi
    Upper Andi (Andi proper). The basic source is now the vocabulary contained in Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990. We used also the data from Tsertsvadze 1965 (although there is no vocabulary there and one has to pick out Andi data from the text passim), as well as (with caution!) Dirr 1903. Extensive data on Andi, as well as on other Andian languages, are contained in Gudava 1964.
    Data on other Andi dialects (Munib, Kvankhidatl) are occasionally found in Gudava 1964 and Tsertsvadze 1965, but are not described systematically.
10. Botlikh
    The vocabulary of Botlikh proper is taken from Gudava 1962. The Miarsu dialect is not described systematically (occasional forms are taken from ibid. and Gudava 1964).
11. Godoberi

The vocabulary of Godoberi proper is taken from Saidova 1973. The Ziberkhala dialect is not described systematically (occasional forms are cited from Gudava 1964).
12. Karata

The basic source for Karata proper is Magomedbekova 1971. Occasional data from the Tokita dialect are cited from Gudava 1964.
13. Akhvakh

Northern Akhvakh: the primary source is Magomedbekova 1967. We also used the Akhvakh nominal recordings contained in Kibrik-Kodzasov 1990.
Vocabulary of other dialects of Akhvakh (Ratlub, Southern Akhvakh with the sub-dialects Tlanub and Tsegob) is rather systematically collected in Magomedbekova 1967; also valuable is, of course, Gudava 1964.
14. Bagvalal

Gemerso dialect: the basic source is Gudava 1971, as well as Gudava 1964. Both books contain some forms of other dialects: Kvanada, Tlondoda-Khushtada, Tlissi-Tlibisho.
15. Tindi

Tindi proper: the primary source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 (we should perhaps mention that the data contained there were collected by the authors themselves during the MSU expedition of 1975).
The MSU expedition also collected some vocabulary of the Aknada dialect; some very sparse data on the Angida dialect are contained in Gudava 1964. However, there are no systematic recordings, and we rarely utilize this information in the dictionary.
16. Chamalal

Lower Gakvari dialect: the primary source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990, complemented by Bokarev 1949. The MSU expeditions also collected some vocabulary of the Upper Gakvari dialect (although it is still unpublished), as well as vocabulary of the more archaic Gigatl dialect. Some dialectal data (from Upper Gakvari, Gadyri, Gigatl) are also contained in Bokarev 1949 and Gudava 1964.
17. Avar

Khunzakh dialect (literary Avar): the basic source is Saidov 1967. Also used were Zhirkov 1936, Mikailov-Saidov 1951, Uslar 1889 (the latter source actually describes the Salatav subdialect of Khunzakh).
Of the numerous Southern Avar dialects only the Antsukh dialect was described more or less systematically. We cite its forms (from the Chadakolob subdialect) from Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990. All other Southern Avar dialectal forms (for the Karakh, Andalal, Gid, Keleb, Untib, Shulani dialects) are taken from Mikailov 1959.

18. Tsezi

Kidero dialect: most Tsezi sources are recorded in Kidero. We do not note the source explicitly if the Tsezi form was taken from Bokarev 1959 or Imnayshvili 1963 (virtually identical idiolects were recorded); the mark Kid. is reserved for the forms cited from Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990, slightly differing from earlier records.
Forms from other dialects (Shaitl, Asakh, Shapikh, Sagada) are taken mainly from Imnayshvili 1963.
19. Ginukh

The main source is Lomtadze 1963; much information is also contained in Bokarev 1959.
20. Khvarshi

Khvarshi proper: until recently the basic source was Sharafuddinova-Levina 1961, as well as some scarce data in Bokarev 1959. However, due to Ramazan Nadzhipov, all forms were checked and many new forms collected in Khvarshi in summer 1992.

Other dialects (Inkhokvari, Kvantlada, Santlada) actually belong to Inkhokvari, which we regard as a distinct language, not a dialect of Khvarshi.
21. Inkhokvari

Inkhokvari proper: the main source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 (just like the Tindi data, the nominal part of Inkhokvari records was taken down by the authors during the 1975 MSU expedition).
Occasional data from other dialects (Kvantlada, Santlada) are cited from Bokarev 1959.
22. Bezhta

Bezhta proper: the basic source is Madiyeva 1965; Bokarev 1959 was also used.
For the Khoshar-Khota and Tladal dialects the principal source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990.
23. Gunzib

Gunzib proper: the basic source is Bokarev 1961a. Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 also contain records of the Gunzib dialect: forms taken from this source are marked Gunz. (forms from Bokarev 1961a are left unmarked).
Occasionally we also cite unpublished expedition materials on the Nakhada dialect of Gunzib (very close to Gunzib proper).
24. Lak

Kumukh dialect (literary language): the main source is Khaidakov 1962. This dictionary is quite extensive and the forms are well recorded (except, unfortunately, labialisation which is poorly noted in most sources), so we used other sources on Kumukh (Murkelinski 1953, Uslar 1890) only occasionally.
We frequently use the MSU data (Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990) on the Khosrekh dialect (more or less regularly preserving labialisation). Forms from all other Lak dialects (Bartkhi, Vitskhi et al.) are taken from Khaidakov 1966.
25. Dargwa

    Akushi dialect: all forms cited from Abdullayev 1950.
    Systematically recorded are also data of the Urakhi dialect (called Khµrkili by Uslar 1892), as well as data of the Chirag dialect (a subdialect of Amukh, recorded in Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990). We should note that in some of the entries the Urakhi data are sometimes adduced, when the Akushi data are not available. A notation like "Ak. ab€a (Ur.)" is equivalent to "Ur. ab€a". We were unfortunately not able to include the latest MSU recordings of the Megeb dialect.
    Forms of all other dialects are basically cited from Musayev 1978.
26. Lezghi

Northern dialect (literary Lezghi). The main source is Talibov-Gadzhiyev 1966 (with occasional additions from Gadzhiyev 1951 and, very rarely, from Uslar 1876). Literary Lezghi is actually a mixture of all Northern dialects (Gµne, Yarki and Kurakh); forms from these dialects, when attested, are taken from Meilanova 1964 and Gaidarov 1963.
Forms from the Khliut subdialect of the Akhty dialect are cited from Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990; other Akhty forms, as well as forms from other Southern dialects (Samur, Kuba) are taken from Meilanova 1964 and Gaidarov 1963.
27. Tabasaran

    Southern dialect (literary Tabasaran). The most extensive source is Khanmagomedov 1957. We also use Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990, containing records of the Kandik subdialect of Southern Tabasaran (one of the authors, S. Starostin, took part in collecting them in 1974).
    For the Northern dialect we possess systematic MSU recordings of the Dµbek subdialect (Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990) and of the Khanag subdialect (Uslar 1979 - a manuscript published more than a hundred years after it was written). Data of other subdialects can be occasionally found in Magometov 1965.
28. Agul
    Keren dialect (Richa subdialect): the basic source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990. The same source also contains systematically recorded data of the Koshan dialect (Burshag subdialect), as well as nominal recordings of the Gekkhun (Burkikhan) and Fite dialects. Verbal recordings, as well as recordings of Agul proper (Tpig subdialect) were also done by the MSU expeditions, but for some reason were left unpublished.
    Other sources for Agul, that we have used less extensively, are: Dirr 1907 (rather poor quality of records), Shaumyan 1941 and Magometov 1970. We also used field records of the Kurag dialect that were kindly supplied by M. Y. Alekseyev.
29. Rutul

Mukhad dialect (Luchek subdialect): the basic source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990. We should note that one of the authors (S. Starostin) took part in collecting Luchek vocabulary during the expedition of 1974.
Data of the Mishlesh subdialect were kindly presented to us by M. Y. Alekseyev. The MSU expeditions collected also forms from other dialects (Shinaz, Ikhrek, Khnov) which we use in this dictionary although they are still unpublished. However, most data from dialects other than Luchek are taken from Ibragimov 1978 (it is worth noting that the latter source contains also some valuable Tsakhur recordings).
30. Tsakhur

    Mikik dialect: the basic source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990. For some reason Mikik verbs were left unpublished in this edition, although they were collected by the MSU expedition of 1974; we cite them from our cardfiles.
    Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 present also a systematic description of the vocabulary of Tsakhur proper, as well as nouns from the Gelmets dialect.
    The only other existing source of Tsakhur vocabulary is the highly unreliable work by Dirr (Dirr 1913), which we preferred not to utilize.
31. Kryz

Kryz proper: data taken from Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 (the authors have themselves collected Kryz lexical data during the MSU expedition of 1977).
Occasionally cited are materials from the Alik dialect, collected by the same expedition, but not yet published. Other dialects (Dzhek and Khaputli) were not recorded systematically.
32. Budukh

All data contained in the dictionary were taken from Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 and checked with Meilanova 1984.
33. Archi

At present the most authoritative and extensive source is Kibrik-Samedov 1977. A few words (for some reason left out of Kibrik-Samedov 1977) were taken from Mikailov 1967 and from Dirr 1908 (a highly unreliable source).
34. Udi

Nidzh dialect: the basic source is Gukasyan 1974. All data were checked with Dzheiranishvili 1971 and Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 (we avoided using the highly unreliable recordings of Dirr 1904).
All forms from the Vartashen dialect are also cited from Gukasyan 1974.
35. Khinalug

At present the principal source is Kibrik-Kodzasov 1988, 1990 (containing more data and more accurately recorded than Kibrik-Kodzasov-Olovyannikova 1972).

All Hurro-Urartian data contained in the dictionary duplicate the materials in Diakonoff-Starostin 1986 (with some minor corrections).

Throughout the text of the dictionary we use names of researchers while citing forms from some non-basic sources. Following conventions are being observed:

(Bokarev) stands for Bokarev 1959 (for all Tsezian languages)
(Bokarev) stands for Bokarev 1949 (for Chamalal)
(Gudava) stands for Gudava 1964 (for all Andian languages)
(Desheriyev) stands for Desheriyev 1953 (for Batsbi)
(Ibragimov) stands for Ibragimov 1978 (for Rutul and Tsakhur)
(Imnayshvili) stands for Imnaishvili 1963 (for Tsezi)

or for Imnayshvili 1977 (for all Nakh languages)
(Isakov) stands for Isakov-Khalilov 1986 (for Tsezian)
(Khaidakov) stands for Khaidakov 1973 (for all EC languages)
(Leksika) stands for Leksika 1971 (for all EC languages)
(Lomtadze) stands for Lomtadze 1963 (for Ginukh)
(Madiyeva) stands for Madiyeva 1965 (for Bezhta)
(Magometov) stands for Magometov 1965 (for Tabasaran)

or for Magometov 1970 (for Agul)
(Marr) stands for Marr 1926 (for Abkhaz)
(Matsiyev) stands for Matsiyev 1932 (for Batsbi)
(Radzhibov) stands for Ramazan Radzhibov's records (for Tsezi and Khvarshi)
(Shaumyan) stands for Shaumyan 1941 (for Agul)
(Schiefner) stands for Schiefner 1856 (for Batsbi)
(Tsertsvadze) stands for Tsertsvadze 1965 (for Andi)
(Uslar) stands for Uslar 1876 (for Lezghi);

for Uslar 1887 (for Abkhaz);

for Uslar 1888 (for Chechen);

for Uslar 1889 (for Avar);

for Uslar 1892 (for Dargwa);

for Uslar 1979 (for Tabasaran).

Throughout the text of the dictionary we use a unified phonetic transcription, developed specially for Caucasian languages. It is basically the same transcription as in Kibrik, Kodzasov 1988, 1990, but with an important distinction: glottalized consonants are marked with a ·, not with an apostrophe (monosymbolic writing places groups glottalization together with basic laryngeal features, such as voice or voicelessness, and distinguishes it from complementary features, like tenseness or palatalization). What is listed below simultaneously represents the alphabetical order accepted in the dictionary.
NB: Computer data handling has its drawbacks. Within the whole text of the dictionary the end of the word is treated as a special symbol, being the last in the alphabet (thus, e.g., ªa comes after ªat, not before). When this flaw was discovered, it was already too late to reorder all the entries in the dictionary and in the indices. The reader should keep in mind this peculiarity.

€ - glottalized laryngeal (glottal) stop
€º - same, labialized
- voiced emphatic laryngeal fricative
º - same, labialized (in Abkhaz - also palatalized)
‚ - glottalized emphatic laryngeal stop
‚º - same, labialized
a - back low unrounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
a¢ - same, but short
ƒ - same, but long
„ - front low unrounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
„¢ - same, but short
… - same, but long
A - some back unrounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
A¢ - some back short unrounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
A¯ - some back long unrounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
b - voiced labial stop
b´ - same, palatalized
bº - same, labialized
b´º - same, labialized and palatalized
b: - tense voiced labial stop
c - voiceless (aspirated) hissing affricate
cº - voiceless (aspirated) labialized hissing affricate
c´ - voiceless (aspirated) hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) affricate
c´º - voiceless (aspirated) palatalized labialized hissing affricate
c´¹ - voiceless (aspirated) dentolabialized hissing-hushing affricate
c: - tense (unaspirated, but in Avaro-Andian languages - aspirated) hissing affricate
c:º - tense (unaspirated, but in Avaro-Andian languages - aspirated)
    labialized hissing affricate
c´: - tense (unaspirated) hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) affricate
c´:º - tense (unaspirated) palatalized labialized hissing affricate
C - some consonant (symbol used in reconstructions)
ˆ - lax glottalized hissing affricate
ˆº - lax glottalized labialized hissing affricate
ˆ´ - lax glottalized hissing-spirated) palatalized labialized hissing affricate
C - some consonant (symbol used in reconstructions)
ˆ - lax glottalized hissing affricate
ˆº - lax glottalized labialized hissing affricate
ˆ´ - lax glottalized hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) affricate
ˆ´º - lax glottalized palatalized labialized hissing affricate
ˆ´¹ - lax glottalized dentolabialized hissing-hushing affricate
ˆ: - tense glottalized hissing affricate
ˆ:º - tense glottalized labialized hissing affricate
‰ - voiceless (aspirated) hushing affricate
‰º - voiceless (aspirated) labialized hushing affricate
‰´ - voiceless (aspirated) palatalized hushing affricate
‰´º - voiceless (aspirated) palatalized labialized hushing affricate
‰¹ - voiceless (aspirated) dentolabialized hushing affricate
‰: - tense (unaspirated) hushing affricate
‰:º - tense (unaspirated) labialized hushing affricate
‰´: - tense (unaspirated) palatalized hushing affricate
‰´:º - tense (unaspirated) palatalized labialized hushing affricate
‰:¹ - tense (unaspirated) dentolabialized hushing affricate
Š - lax glottalized hushing affricate
Šº - lax glottalized labialized hushing affricate
Š´ - lax glottalized palatalized hushing affricate
Š´º - lax glottalized palatalized labialized hushing affricate
Š¹ - lax glottalized dentolabialized hushing affricate
Š: - tense glottalized hushing affricate
Š:º - tense glottalized labialized hushing affricate
d - voiced dental stop
d´ - same, palatalized
dº - same, labialized
d´º - same, palatalized and labialized
d: - tense voiced dental stop
‹ - voiced interdental fricative
e - front mid-low unrounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
e¢ - same, but short
Œ - same, but long
E - some front unrounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
E¢ - some front short unrounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
E¯ - some front long unrounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
- mid mid-low unrounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
¢ - same, but short
Ž - same, but long
f - voiceless labial fricative
f: - tense (voiceless) labial fricative
g - voiced velar stop
g´ - same, palatalized
gº - same, labialized
g´º - same, palatalized and labialized
g: - tense voiced velar stop (affricate)
G - voiced uvular stop (affricate)
G´ - same, palatalized
Gº - same, labialized
G´º - same, palatalized and labialized
G: - tense voiced velar stop (affricate)
‘ - voiced velar fricative
‘´ - same, palatalized
‘º - same, labialized
‘´º - same, palatalized and labialized
h - voiceless laryngeal fricative
hº - same, labialized
H - some laryngeal (symbol used in reconstructions)
“ - voiceless emphatic laryngeal fricative
“º - same, labialized
” - voiced laryngeal fricative
”º - same, labialized
i - front high unrounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
i¢ - same, but short
– - same, but long
iÍ - palatal glide
I - after any vowel or consonant signifies pharyngealization
— - mid high unrounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
—¢ - same, but short
˜ - same, but long
j - palatal resonant
k - voiceless (aspirated) velar stop
k´ - same, palatalized [in Tindi: palatal]
kº - same, labialized
k´º - same, palatalized and labialized
k: - tense (unaspirated) velar stop [but in Avaro-Andian languages except Tindi -
    tense velar affricate]
k´: - same, palatalized [in Tindi - palatal]
k:º - same, labialized
k´:º - same, palatalized and labialized
™ - glottalized velar stop
™´ - same, palatalized [in Tindi - palatal]
™º - same, labialized
™´º - same, palatalized and labialized
™x - glottalized velar affricate (symbol used only in some intermediate reconstructions)
™: - tense glottalized velar affricate
™:º - same, labialized
K - some back (velar or uvular) consonant (symbol used in reconstructions)
l - lateral resonant
l´ - same, palatalized
š - lateral resonant or glide (symbol used only in reconstructions)
œ - voiceless (aspirated) lateral affricate
œ´ - same, palatalized
œº - same, labialized
œ´º - same, palatalized and labialized
œ: - tense (unaspirated) lateral affricate
œ´: - same, palatalized
œ:º - same, labialized
œ´:º - same, palatalized and labialized
- lax glottalized lateral affricate
´ - same, palatalized
º - same, labialized
´º - same, palatalized and labialized
: - tense lateral affricate
´ - same, palatalized
º - same, labialized
´º - same, palatalized and labialized
ž - voiced lateral affricate
ž´ - same, palatalized
žº - same, labialized
ž´º - same, palatalized and labialized
› - voiceless lateral fricative
›´ - same, palatalized
›º - same, labialized
›´º - same, palatalized and labialized
›: - tense lateral fricative
›´: - same, palatalized
›:º - same, labialized
›´:º - same, palatalized and labialized
L - voiced lateral fricative
L´ - same, palatalized
Lº - same, labialized
L´º - same, palatalized and labialized
m - labial nasal resonant
m´ - same, palatalized
n - dental nasal resonant
n´ - same, palatalized
Ÿ - velar nasal resonant
N - some nasal resonant (symbol used in reconsstructions)
o - back mid-low rounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
o¢ - same, but short
¡ - same, but long
O - some back rounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
O¢ - some back short rounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
O¯ - some back long rounded vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
£ - front mid-low rounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
£¢ - same, but short
¤ - same, but long
p - voiceless (aspirated) labial stop
p´ - same, palatalized
pº - same, labialized
p´º - same, palatalized and labialized
p: - tense (unaspirated) labial stop
p´: - same, palatalized
p:º - same, labialized
p´:º - same, palatalized and labialized
© - glottalized labial stop
©´ - same, palatalized
©º - same, labialized
©´º - same, palatalized and labialized
P - some labial consonant (symbol used in reconstructions)
q - voiceless (aspirated) uvular affricate
q´ - same, palatalized
qº - same, labialized
q´º - same, palatalized and labialized
q: - tense (unaspirated) uvular stop [but in Avaro-Andian - tense uvular
    affricate; in some Lezghian languages (Rutul, Shakhdagh) it is functionally
    not tense, but voiced, because they lack other tense consonants - but
    actually pronounced as voiceless tense unaspirated]
q´: - same, palatalized
q:º - same, labialized
q´:º - same, labialized and palatalized
ª - lax glottalized uvular affricate
ª´ - same, palatalized
ªº - same, labialized
ª´º - same, palatalized and labialized
r - dental vibrant
r´ - same, palatalized
rº - same, labialized
’ - voiced uvular fricative
’´ - same, palatalized
’º - same, labialized
’´º - same, labialized and palatalized
R - some resonant (symbol used in reconstructions; in Proto-Tsezi-Khvarshi
    it denotes: "either *r or *l")
R° - voiced pharyngeal fricative
s - voiceless hissing fricative
sº - voiceless labialized hissing fricative
s´ - voiceless hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) fricative
s´º - voiceless palatalized labialized hissing fricative
s´¹ - voiceless dentolabialized hissing-hushing fricative
s: - tense hissing fricative
s:º - tense labialized hissing fricative
s´: - tense hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) fricative
s´:º - tense palatalized labialized hissing affricate
s· - glottalized hissing fricative
s´· - glottalized hissing-hushing fricative
s·º - glottalized hissing labialized fricative
s´·¹ - glottalized dentolabialized hissing-hushing fricative
« - voiceless hushing fricative
«º - voiceless labialized hushing fricative
«´ - voiceless palatalized hushing fricative
«´º - voiceless palatalized labialized hushing fricative
«¹ - voiceless dentolabialized hushing fricative
«: - tense hushing fricative
«:º - tense labialized hushing fricative
«´: - tense palatalized hushing fricative
«´:º - tense palatalized labialized hushing fricative
«:¹ - tense dentolabialized hushing fricative
t - voiceless (aspirated) dental stop
t´ - same, palatalized
tº - same, labialized
t´º - same, labialized and palatalized
t: - tense (unaspirated) dental stop
t´: - same, palatalized
t:º - same, labialized
t´:º - same, labialized and palatalized
® - glottalized dental stop
®´ - same, palatalized
®º - same, labialized
®´º - same, palatalized and labialized
± - voiceless interdental fricative
T - some dental consonant (symbol used in reconstructions)
u - back high rounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
u¢ - same, but short
³ - same, but long
µ - front high rounded vowel (short or irrelevant as to the length distinction)
µ¢ - same, but short
¶ - same, but long
uÍ - labial glide
v - voiced labial fricative
V - some vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
V¢ - some short vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
V¯ - some long vowel (symbol used in reconstructions)
w - labial resonant
x - voiceless velar fricative
x´ - same, palatalized
xº - same, labialized
x´º - same, labialized and palatalized
x: - tense velar fricative
x´: - same, palatalized
x:º - same, labialized
x´:º - same, palatalized and labialized
» - voiceless uvular fricative
»´ - same, palatalized
»º - same, labialized
»´º - same, labialized and palatalized
»: - tense uvular fricative
»´: - same, palatalized
»:º - same, labialized
»´:º - same, palatalized and labialized
X° - voiceless pharyngeal fricative
z - voiced hissing fricative
zº - voiced labialized hissing fricative
z´ - voiced hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) fricative
z´º - voiced palatalized labialized hissing fricative
z´¹ - voiced dentolabialized hissing-hushing fricative
¼ - voiced hushing fricative
¼º - voiced labialized hushing fricative
¼´ - voiced palatalized hushing fricative
¼´º - voiced palatalized labialized hushing fricative
¼¹ - voiced dentolabialized hushing fricative
½ - voiced hissing affricate
½º - voiced labialized hissing affricate
½´ - voiced hissing-hushing ( = palatalized) affricate
½´º - voiced palatalized labialized hissing affricate
½´¹ - voiced dentolabialized hissing-hushing affricate
¾ - voiced hushing affricate
¾º - voiced labialized hushing affricate
¾´ - voiced palatalized hushing affricate
¾´º - voiced palatalized labialized hushing affricate
¾¹ - voiced dentolabialized hushing affricate

    In the dictionary we usually left superfluous features unmarked. E.g., in all East Caucasian languages hushing affricates are phonetically palatalized; since they are not opposed to non-palatalized affricates, we did not mark their palatalization. On the other hand, in West Caucasian languages the opposition in palatalization between affricates is usual, and one has to mark it carefully.
    This principle is violated only once: in all East Caucasian languages we regularly mark tense affricates with a colon, even if they are not opposed to lax ones (this concerns, e.g., the affricate ª: in most Andian languages). We do it in order to conserve a uniform transcription (otherwise we would have to write, e.g., Tind. miªi 'road' - although it is pronounced exactly like Akhv. miª:i and goes back to *miª:i).
    Some additional phonemic features are not reflected in the list of phonemes presented above:
    1) nasalization of vowels (marked with ~);
    2) pharyngealization of vowels and consonants (marked with I). Usually it is rather difficult to decide (in any particular language that possesses this feature) whether it is a feature of consonants, vowels, or both (a prosodic feature), and the decision varies from language to language (see the discussion in Trubetzkoy 1931 and the comments on pp. 465-473).
    3) In Proto-North-Caucasian and Proto-East-Caucasian we introduce a distinction, marked as _ (underlining) of the first affricate or fricative in the root. This is probably a phonational feature like tenseness, which can be reconstructed only if the root contains a fricative or an affricate (see below, pp. 90-91).
    Dynamic accent is marked by the sign ´; tonal distinctions are left unmarked (they still await description).
    Morphemic boundaries are usually marked by a hyphen (-); the place of insertion of the variable class markers is, however, marked by the symbol =.
    In comparative phonetic tables variants are delimited by the symbol / if their distribution is known; by the symbol ¬ if their distribution is not discovered. The latter symbol (after a bracket) also introduces possible alternative reconstructions in the text of the dictionary. The symbol ¹ between phonemes is used when the choice between two variants is uncertain (because of insufficient evidence).
    In phonetic tables the hyphen (-) denotes position: thus, "k-" means "k in initial position"; "-k-" - "k in medial position", "-k" - "k in final possition". If any two positions are combined, the hyphen is omitted: thus, the expression "k: in non-final, k in final position" can be noted as "k:-,-k:-,-k" or, shorter, as "k:,-k".

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AA Avaro-Andian
Abadz. Abadzekh dialect of Kabardian
Abaz. Abaza
Abkh. Abkhaz
Abzh. Abzhui dialect of Abkhaz
Ad. Adyghe
Afg. Afgani
Ag. Agul
AK Adyg (Adyg-Kabardian)
Ak. Akushi dialect of Dargwa
Akht. Akhty dialect of Lezghi
Akhv. Akhvakh
Akk. Akka dialect of Chechen
Akkad. Akkadian
Akn. Aknada (Aknada-Angida) dialect of Tindi
Al. Alik dialect of Kryz
Alyut. Alyutor
Am. Amukh dialect of Dargwa
Ams. Amsar dialect of Rutul
Anch. Anchikh dialect of Karata
And. Andi
Andal. Andalal dialect of Avar
Ants. Antsukh dialect of Avar
Arab. Arabic
Arak. Arakul dialect of Lak
Arch. Archi
Archo. Archo dialect of Karata
Arm. Armenian
Ars. Arsug dialect of Agul (subdialect of the Koshan dialect)
Asakh. Asakh dialect of Tsezi
Ashkh. Ashkhar dialect of Abaza
Asht. Ashtikuli dialect of Dargwa
AT Abkhaz-Tapant
Av. Avar
Avest. Avestan
Azer. Azeri
Bacb., Batsb. Batsbi
Bagv. Bagvalal
Balk. Balkarian
Balkh. Balkhar dialect of Lak
Bartkh. Bartkhi dialect of Lak
Besl. Beslene dialect of Kabardian
Bezht. Bezhta
Botl. Botlikh
Bud. Budukh
Burk. Burkikhan dialect of Agul
Bursh. Burshag dialect of Agul
Bz., Bzyb. Bzyb dialect of Abkhaz
Bzhed. Bzhedug dialect of Adyghe
Chab. Chabakori dialect of Karata
Chad. Chadakolob dialect of Avar
Cham. Chamalal
Chan. Chan
Cheb. Cheberlo dialect of Chechen
Chech. Chechen
Chir. Chirag dialect of Agul
Cush. Cushitic
Dig. Digor dialect of Ossetian
Dµb. Dµbek dialect of Tabasaran
EC East Caucasian
Engl. English
Fij. Fij dialect of Lezghi
Fit. Fite dialect of Agul
Gad. Gadyri dialect of Chamalal
Gag. Gagatl dialect of Andi
Gal. Galanchozh dialect of Chechen
Gapsh. Gapshima dialect of Dargwa
GB Gunzib-Bezhta
Gelm. Gelmets dialect of Tsakhur
Georg. Georgian
Germ. Germanic
Gid. Gid dialect of Avar
Gig. Gigatl dialect of Chamalal
Gin. Ginukh
God. Godoberi
Got. Gothic
Gr. Greek
Gunz. Gunzib
Gµn. Gµne dialect of Lezghi
Hebr. Hebrew
Hitt. Hittite
HU Hurro-Urartian
Hung. Hungarian
Hurr. Hurrian
IE Indo-European
Ikhr. Ikhrek dialect of Rutul
Ind. Indian (Old Ind. - Old Indian)
Ing. Ingush
Inkh. Inkhokvari
Iran. Iranian
It., Itumk. Itumkala dialect of Chechen
Itsar. Itsari dialect of Dargwa
K. - Kurag dialect of Agul (recorded by M.Y. Alekseev)
Kab. Kabardian (Circassian)
Kad. Kadar dialect of Dargwa
Kafir. Kafiri
Kait. Kaitag dialect of Dargwa
Kand. Kandik dialect of Tabasaran
Kar. Karata
Karakh. - Karakh dialect of Avar
Keg., Keger. Keger dialect of Avar (subdialect of Andalal)
Kel. Keleb dialect of Avar
Ker. Kere dialect of Agul
Kh. Khamaitlakh dialect of Tsezi
Khak. Khakuchi dialect of Adyghe
Khan. Khanag dialect of Tabasaran
Khant. Khanty
Kharb. Kharbuk dialect of Dargwa
Khild. Khildikharo dialect of Chechen
Khin. Khinalug
Khiv. Khiv dialect of Tabasaran
Khl. Khliut dialect of Lezghi
Khn., Khnov. Khnov dialect of Rutul
Khniukh. Khniukh dialect of Rutul
Khosh. Khoshar-Khota dialect of Bezhta
Khosr. Khosrekh dialect of Lak
Khu. Khushtada dialect of Bagvali
Khud. Khudig dialect of Agul
Khup. Khupri dialect of Tsezi
Khµr. Khµrig dialect of Tabasaran
Khvarsh. Khvarshi
Kich. Kiche dialect of Rutul
Kid. Kidero dialect of Tsezi
Kirgh. Kirghiz
Kist. Kista dialect of Chechen
Kosh. Kosha dialect of Agul ( = Bursh.)
Kryz. Kryz
Kub. Kubachi dialect of Dargwa
Kuba. Kuba dialect of Lezghi
Kuban. Kuban dialect of Kabardian
Kul. Kuli (Vachi-Kuli) dialect of Lak
Kum. Kumyk
Kumukh. Kumukh dialect of Lak
Kur. Kurakh dialect of Lezghi
Kuyad. Kuyada dialect of Avar (subdialect of Andalal)
Kvan. Kvanada (Kvanada-Gemerso) dialect of Bagvalal
Kvankh. Kvankhidatl dialect of Andi
Kypch. Kypchak
Lak. Lak
Lat. Latin
Lev. Level-land dialect of Chechen
Lezg. Lezghi
L.-Enkh. Lower Enkhida dialect of Karata
L.-Gakv. Lower Gakvari dialect of Chamalal
Lit. Lithuanian
Luch. Luchek dialect of Rutul
Mans. Mansi
Mar. Mari
Masht. Mashtada dialect of Karata
Meg. Megeb dialect of Dargwa
Megr. Megrel
Mek. Mekeg dialect of Dargwa
Melkh. Melkha dialect of Chechen
Miar. Miarsu dialect of Botlikh
Migr. Migrakh dialect of Lezghi
Mik. Mikik dialect of Tsakhur
Mishl. Mishlesh dialect of Tsakhur
Mong. Mongolian
Mord. Mordva
Mozd. Mozdok dialect of Kabardian
M.-Pers. Middle Persian
MSU - materials of the expeditions of the Moscow State University
Mug. Mugi dialect of Dargwa
Muir. Muiri dialect of Dargwa
Mukh. Mukhad dialect of Rutul
Mukhakh. Mukhakh dialect of Tsakhur
Mun. Munib dialect of Andi
Mµkhr. Mµkhrek dialect of Rutul
Mµr. Mµregi dialect of Dargwa
Nakh. Nakhada dialect of Gunzib
N.-Akhv. Northern Akhvakh
NC North Caucasian
Nidzh. Nidzh dialect of Udi
Nµt. Nµtµg dialect of Lezghi
Obokh. Obokh dialect of Avar (subdialect of Andalal)
Osset. Ossetian
PAA Proto-Avaro-Andian
PAK Proto-Adyghe-Kabardian
PAT Proto-Abkhaz-Tapant
PGB Proto-Gunzib-Bezhta
PEC Proto-East-Caucasian
Pers. Persian
Pharch. Pharcho dialect of Chechen
PHU Proto-Hurro-Urartian
PIE Proto-Indo-European
PK Proto-Kartvelian
PL Proto-Lezghian
PNC Proto-North-Caucasian
Pol. Polish
PT Proto-Turkic
PTsKh Proto-Tsez-Khvarshi
PWC Proto-West-Caucasian
Rach. Rachabaldi dialect of Karata
Ratl. Ratlub dialect of Akhvakh
Rats. Ratsitl dialect of Karata
Rich. Richa dialect of Agul
Rikv. Rikvani dialect of Andi
Russ. Russian
Rut. Rutul
S.-Akhv. Southern Akhvakh
Sag. Sagada dialect of Tsezi
Samurz. Samurzakan dialect of Abkhaz
Santl. Santlada dialect of Inkhokvari
Scyth. Scythian
Sem. Semitic
Sh. Shaitl dialect of Tsezi
Shangud. dialect of Avar
Shaps. Shapsug dialect of Adyghe
Shar. Sharo dialect of Chechen
Shin. Shinaz dialect of Rutul
Shugn. Shugnan
Shul. Shulani dialect of Avar
Sirg. Sirgokala dialect of Dargwa
Slav. Slavic
Sogd. Sogdian
Sum. Sumerian
Svan. Svan
Tab. Tabasaran
Tap. Tapant dialect of Abaza
Tat. Tatar
Tem. Temirgoi dialect of Adyghe
Tind. Tindi
Tlad. Tladal dialect of Bezhta
Tlan. Tlanub dialect of Akhvakh
Tleb. dialect of Avar
Tlis. Tlissi (Tlissi-Tlibisho) dialect of Bagvalal
Tlond. Tlondoda (Tlondoda-Khushtada) dialect of Bagvalal
Tok. Tokita dialect of Karata
Tokh. Tokharian
Tp. Tpig dialect of Agul
Tsakh. Tsakhur
Tseg. Tsegob dialect of Akhvakh
Tsez. Tsezi (Dido)
Tsirkh. Tsirkhe dialect of Agul
TsKh Tsezi-Khvarshi
Tsud. Tsudakhar dialect of Dargwa
Turk. Turkish
U. dialect of Agul
Ub. Ubykh
Ud. Udi
Udm. Udmurtian
U.-Gakv. Upper Gakvari dialect of Chamalal
Ukr. Ukranian
Ulz. Ulzig dialect of Tabasaran
Unt. Untib dialect of Avar
Ur. Urakhi dialect of Dargwa
Urart. Urartian
Vart. Vartashen dialect of Udi (basic dial.)
Ved. Vedeno dialect of Chechen
Veps. Veps
Vikhl. Vikhli dialect of Lak
Vitskh. Vitskhi dialect of Lak
WC West Caucasian
Yark. Yarki dialect of Lezghi
Zak. Zakatal dialect of Avar
Zan. Zan
Zib. Zibirkhali dialect of Godoberi
Zil. Zilo dialect of Andi

Names of protolanguages are usually abbreviated as PWC, PEC, PL etc.
However, in etymological headings we use "W.-Cauc." for PWC, "Nakh." for PN,
"Av.-And." for PAA, "Tsez." for PTs, "Darg." for PD and "Lezg." for PL.

LITERATURE

The literature listed below serves only for reference purposes:
we do not intend to give a complete bibliography of comparative
North Caucasian studies.

Abayev 1958: Â.È.Àáàåâ. Èñòîðèêî-ýòèìîëîãè÷åñêèé ñëîâàðü îñåòèíñêîãî ÿçûêà.
Ò. 1 - Ìîñêâà-Ëåíèíãðàä 1958; ò. 2 - Ëåíèíãðàä 1973; ò. 3 - Ëåíèíãðàä 1979; ò. 4 -
Ëåíèíãðàä 1989.
Abdokov 1976: À.È.Àáäîêîâ. Ê âîïðîñó î ãåíåòè÷åñêîì ðîäñòâå
àáõàçñêî-àäûãñêèõ è íàõñêî-äàãåñòàíñêèõ ÿçûêîâ. Íàëü÷èê, 1976.
Abdokov 1983: À.È.Àáäîêîâ. Î çâóêîâûõ è ñëîâàðíûõ ñîîòâåòñòâèÿõ
ñåâåðîêàâêàçñêèõ ÿçûêîâ. Íàëü÷èê 1983.
Abdullayev 1950: Ñ.H.Àáäóëëàåâ. Ðóññêî-äàðãèíñêèé ñëîâàðü. Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1950.
Acharyan: Ð. À÷àðÿí. Ýòèìîëîãè÷åñêèé êîðíåâîé ñëîâàðü àðìÿíñêîãî ÿçûêà, ò.
I-VII. Åðåâàí, 1926-1935.
Alekseyev 1985: Ì.Å.Àëåêñååâ. Âîïðîñû ñðàâíèòåëüíî-èñòîðè÷åñêîé ãðàììàòèêè
ëåçãèíñêèõ ÿçûêîâ. Ìîñêâà 1985.
Alekseyev 1988: Ì.Å.Àëåêñååâ. Ñðàâíèòåëüíî-èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ ìîðôîëîãèÿ
àâàðî-àíäèéñêèõ ÿçûêîâ. Ìîñêâà, 1988.
Aliroyev 1975: È.Þ.Àëèðîåâ. Hàçâàíèÿ òðàâ â íàõñêèõ ÿçûêàõ.
Èáåðèéñêî-êàâêàçñêîå ÿçûêîçíàíèå, ò. II, Òáèëèñè 1975, ñ. 159-165.
Ardzinba 1979: Â.Ã.Àðäçèíáà. Håêîòîðûå ñõîäíûå ñòðóêòóðíûå ïðèçíàêè
õàòòñêîãî è àáõàçî-àäûãñêèõ ÿçûêîâ. - Ïåðåäíåàçèàòñêèé ñáîðíèê, III. Ìîñêâà, 1979.
Ardzinba 1985: Â.Ã.Àðäçèíáà. Ðèòóàëû è ìèôû äðåâíåé Àíàòîëèè. Ìîñêâà, 1985.
Aslanov 1975: À.Ì.Àñëàíîâ. Òåðìèíû îâöåâîäñòâà ó öàõóð. In: Åæåãîäíèê
èáåðèéñêî-êàâêàçñêîãî ÿçûêîçíàíèÿ, ò. 2. Òáèëèñè, 1975.
Balkarov 1964: Á.Õ.Áàëêàðîâ. Ëåêñè÷åñêèå âñòðå÷è àäûãñêèõ ÿçûêîâ ñ
äàãåñòàíñêèìè. In: Ó÷åíûå çàïèñêè Êàáàðäèíî-Áàëêàðñêîãî Hàó÷
íî-Èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî Èíñòèòóòà, òîì XX. Hàëü÷èê, 1964.
Balkarov 1965: Á.Õ.Áàëêàðîâ. Àäûãñêèå ýëåìåíòû â îñåòèíñêîì ÿçûêå. Hàëü÷èê,
1965.
Balkarov 1969: Á.Õ.Áàëêàðîâ. Àäûãî-íàõñêèå ÿçûêîâûå âñòðå÷è. In: "Ìàòåðèàëû
ïåðâîé ñåññèè ïî ñðàâíèòåëüíî-èñòîðè÷åñêîìó èçó÷åíèþ èáåðèéñêî-êàâêàçñêèõ
ÿçûêîâ." Ìàõà÷êàëà, 1969.
Balkarov 1970: Á.Õ.Áàëêàðîâ. Ôîíåòèêà àäûãñêèõ ÿçûêîâ (Ñèíõðîííî-äèàõðîííîå
èññëåäîâàíèå). Hàëü÷èê, 1970.
Balkarov 1975: Á.Õ.Áàëêàðîâ. Àäûãñêèå íàçâàíèÿ õëåáíûõ çëàêîâ è èõ ïàðàëëåëè
â äðóãèõ êàâêàçñêèõ ÿçûêàõ. - Ó÷åíûå çàïèñêè Êàáàðäèíî-Áàëêàðñêîãî
Íàó÷íî-Èññëåäîâàòåëüñêîãî Èíñòèòóòà, ò. XXVII. Íàëü÷èê, 1975.
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